What Is Communication?

What Is Theory?

The Theory-Research Link

What Is Research?

Research Methods in Communication

Social Science and the Humanities

Evaluating Theory

Chapter Summary

Case Study 1, Theory and Research in Communication Consulting

Number of participants involved
Personalness
Goals approach
IPC
Systems perspective
Politeness theory
Social exchange theory
Dialectical perspective

• Not just a theory, but a collection of theories that share common assumptions and concepts, which is why it is named as "perspective" rather than "theory".
  
• Its scope includes all kinds of communication such as interpersonal, group, organizational, and mass communication.
  
• Developed heavily by the work of the Palo Alto Group.
  

• Communication is the means by which systems are created and sustained (Monge, 1973).
  
  

System

• Systems include (1) system members; (2) sub-systems; and (3) supra-system. And System theory or System perspective studies the mutual influences and relationships among the three.
  
  • System members . . . A system is a group of individuals who inter-relate to form a whole -- e.g., a family, a work group, a sports team, etc.
    
  • Subsystem . . . Systems may be embedded in hierarchy. Subsystem is a smaller part of the group as a whole (system) -- e.g., parents in a family; defense line in a football team.
    
  • Supra-system . . . is the larger system within which systems and sub-systems operates and interact -- e.g., NFL (National Football League) is a supra-system for an individual football team.
    
    

Nonsummativity

• The whole is greater than the sum of its parts (Fisher, 1978). A system is not just a sum of individuals. It may exert more power than sum of its members' power.
  
  • e.g., A football team may not have significant football player. But, they do good in games because the team works as a team.
    
• This kind of ability -- the team works as a team -- is called positive synergy. The other way may occur -- Negative synergy which means that the group may achieve less than the individual parts would suggest.
  
  

Interdependency

• Nonsummativity occurs because of interdependency between members. Interdependency means that all system members are dependent on all other system members -- e.g., If one group members does not work his/her part, the whole group may not achieve its goal.
  
  

Homeostasis

• Homeostasis refers to the natural balance or equilibrium within groups. It is a tendency for a given system to maintain its stability in the face of change (outer stimuli).
  
  

Equifinality

• Equifinality suggests that there are multiple way to achieve the same goal.
  
  • Increasing revenues by 10 percent can be achieved by
    
    • laying-out the workforces
      
    • selling more products
      
    • reducing manufacturing costs
      
    • developing a new product
      
    • etc.
      
      
      

Politeness theory (PT) explains how and why individuals try to promote, protect, or save face, especially when embarrassing or shameful situations arise unexpectedly.

Goffman's first essay, “On Face-work, focused on the concept of face, which is the positive image of self that individuals have when interacting with others. Goffman believed that face “as a sociological construct of interaction, is neither inherent in nor permanent aspect of the person”.5 Once an individual gives out a positive self image of themselves to others they then feel a need to keep or live up to that set image.

1. Face
   
   • All individuals are concerned with maintaining face (Brown & Levinson, 1978, 1987).
     
   • Face refers to the desired self-image that an individual wishes to present to others; face also includes the recognition that one's interactional partners have face-needs of their own.
     
Positive and negative face

• Positive face are a person's need to be liked, appreciated, and admired by selected persons. Therefore, maintaining positive face may include one's efforts to ensure that the significant others continue to view him/her in an affirming fashion.
  
• Negative face assumes a person's desire to act freely, without constraints or imposition from others.
  
It is difficult to achieve (hold, maintain) both faces at the same time.

2. Rational and goal oriented nature of human being
   
   • Human beings are rational and goal oriented with respect to achieving face needs (Brown & Levinson, 1978, 1987). Everyone's face depends upon everyone else's face being maintained. Therefore, one's decision in interactions with others often uphold this mutual construction of face.
     
3. Face threatening acts
   
   • Human being's rationale guide them to interact with others for mutual respects (face-saving), some behaviors are fundamentally face threatening. These face-threatening acts include common behaviors such as apologies, compliments, criticisms, requests, and threats (Craig, Tracy, & Spisak, 1993).
     

To create and maintain face, ones use facework -- specific messages that thwart or minimize face-threatening acts (FTAs).

1. Preventive facework
   
   • Preventive facework means one's acts to avert, avoid FTAs.
     
   • e.g., Avoiding certain topics, changing the subject, or pretending not to notice the occurrence of an FTA, etc.
     
2. Corrective facework
   
   • Messages of which intention is to restore one's own or others' facework.
     
   • e.g., Use of strategies such as humor, apologies, accounts or explanation of inappropriate actions and behaviors, and physical remediation for the damage of FTAs.
     
3. Conflict between positive and negative facework
   
   • When your desire to appear unencumbered (having a sort of non-attractive charisma) outweighs your desire to be liked, you might need to engage in a face-threatening act.
     
4. Use of five strategies in one's facework
   
   • Avoidance: people may choose not to communicate in order to save their or their communication partner's face.
     
   • Going off record: One may subtly hint or indirectly mention the face-threatening topic or situation. Such strategy (hints and indirect mention) leave the message open to interpretation; hence, minimizing face threat (while achieving what the person wants).
     
   • Negative politeness: Speakers makes an effort to recognize the other's negative face needs -- the receiver's need of freedom and lack of restraint.
     

     I am so sorry to ask, but I need a huge favor. I know this is last minute, and I really hate to be such a pain, but could you cover my shift this weekend? I know this is really inconvenient and I wouldn't ask if it weren't really important. . . .
     

   This statement is my acknowledging the other's discomfort and potentiol restriction while still mangaging a sort of face-threatening act.
   
   • Positive politeness: The speaker emphasizes the receiver's need for positive face -- the need to be liked. Usually flattery and compliments are involved in the communication. One is camouflage one's face-threatening behavior with flattery and compliments.
     

     Bill, you are such a reliable colleague, and os well-respected. I feel like I can really count on you. Would you cover my weekend shift?
     

   • Bald on record: The speaker has no concern for others' face; simply commits the FTA in order to achieve his/her goal.
     

     Bill, cover my weekend shift.
     

According to PT, people use the above strategies tactically.
In addition to the above four, choosing FTAs with a different approaches may involve many factors: 1) understanding both positive and negative face, 2) understanding cultural differences or subtlety, 3) understanding the nature of relationship, and 4) understanding the communication partner's characteristics.

1. Minimax principle: People want to make the the most o the benefits while lessening the costs
   
2. Personal relationships are function of comparing costs and benefits of managing and maintaining relationships -- social relationships bring both costs and rewards. In a simple term, it can be presented as:
   

   Relationship

   (perceived) Rewards
   - (perceived) Costs
   = Outcome (behavioral decisions = what to do)
   

   Marriage

   Perceived Rewards (companionship, affection, sharing a joint savings account, etc.)
   - Perceived Costs (negotiating holiday visits between in-laws, loss of social independence, having to put grad school on hold because of family obligations, etc.)
   = Outcome
   

Rewards and Costs may vary among individuals.

3. Comparison level (CL)
   
   Expected rewards or reward expectations
   

Expectations comes from

relationship model (such as parents, friends)
and one's experiences with relationships
and television and other media representations of relationships, etc.
People compare the current outcome value with CL value; and use it for future actions.

1. Comparison level of alternatives
   
   People also think of Comparison Level of Alternatives.
   CL_alt = What are your alternatives to staying in the relationship? -- i.e, expectation of outcomes to do otherwise.
   
   

Predictions Mede by Social Exchane Theory
Outcomes > CL	=	Satisfied
Outcomes < CL	=	Dissatisfied
Outcomes > CLalt	=	Stay
Outcomes < CLalt	=	Terminate

The perspective assumes that relationships are the constant fluctuation of managing opposing tensions or contradictions. It denies relationships are not result of mathematical calculation. Four important assumptions are:

1. Praxis
   
2. Change
   
3. Contradictions
   
4. Totality
   
   

Praxis
Change
Contradictions
Totality
Internal tensions :: Relationships are formed and sustained by the above four ideas. Tensions are always occur between partners. The three central tensions that individuals experience are:

1. autonomy-connection dialectic
   
2. openness-closedness dialectic
   
3. predictability-novelty dialectic
   
   
   Autonomy-connection
   dialectic refers to the tension between the desire to be independence and that to be connected.
   
   Openness-closedness
   dialectic refers to the tension bewteen wanting to open-up or self-disclosure and wanting to remain private.
   
   Predictability-novelty
   dialectic refers to the tension between wanting stability or steadiness while also wanting opportunities for spontaneity.
   
   

External tensions :: . . . Communication partners are constantly vacillate between each of these three communicative poles. Also, three central tensions are thought to exist. Each of these tensions is a unit of the relationship (communication partners).

1. inclusion-seclusion
   
2. revelation-concealment
   
3. conventionality-uniqueness
   
   
   Inclusion-seclusion
   dialectic refers to the tension partners experience when they want to spend time with friends, family, or coworkers versus wanting to spend their time alone together.
   
   Revealation-concealment
   dialectic refers to tension between desire to reveal the aspects of their relationship to the world and that to hide to themselves.
   
   Conventionality-uniqueness
   refers to tension between wanting to be like others and wanting to be unique.
   
   

Individuals and partners as a unit should manage these tensions across the poles. Four strategies to handle the internal and external tensions:

1. Selection
   
2. Cyclic alteration
   
3. Segmentation
   
4. Integration
   
   
   Selection
   Choosing one pole (side) over the other, which may end the relationship.
   
   Cyclic alteration
   Choosing one pole at this time; and will do the other at the other time. Creating back-and-forth and back-and-forth strategy to cope with the relationship.
   
   Segmentation
   Setting aside something (particular) that conflicts each other. Choosing some topics for openness; the other for closedness.
   
   Integration
   Choosing several variations to create a more fulfilling experience. A couple may choose to use predictability and novelty to escalate their relationship by setting an agreement that Friday is date night (predictability) and that they try out a different restaurant every week (novelty).
   

The average American is exposed to at least three thousand ads every day and will spend three years of his or her life watching television commercials (Kilbourne, 1999, p.58).

Persuasion
Requirement for sender, the means, and the recipient for something to be persuasive

1. Sender has a goal -- Persuasion involves in a goal or the intent to achieve that goal on the part of the message sender.
   
2. Communication is the means for that goal to be achieved.
   
3. Recipient must have free will for the message to be persuasive.
   

Persuasion is neither coercive (3) nor accidental (1).

Attitudes
An attitude is a "relatively enduring predisposition to respond favorable or unfavorable" toward something (Simons, 1976, p.80).

1. Attitudes are not based on whims or fleeting.
   
2. Attitudes are learned evaluations -- they are not something that people are born with.
   
3. Attitudes influence behavior. Persuasion involves in behavior change (eventually). Scholars argue that attitudes change will lead to behavior changes.
   
   

Four theories

1. Social Judgment theory
   
2. Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)
   
3. Cognitive Dissonance Theory
   
4. Narrative Paradigm
   

Leadership Defined

Likert's Four Systems

Transformational Leadership

Contingency Model

Leader-Member Exchange

Chapter Summary

Case Study 6, Saving Holmes Hospitality

Group Communication Defined

Interaction Process Analysis/SYMLOG

Symbolic Convergence Theory

Functional Group Decision Making

Groupthink

Chapter Summary

Case Study 7, The Gifted Group

Organizational Communication Defined

Organizational Identification and Control

Organizational Culture

Structuration Theory

Organizing Theory

Chapter Summary

Case Study 8, A Time of Transition

Mediated communication

refers to any communication
in which something exists
between the source and the receiver.

Something

usually refers to technologies
but can be others such as human beings (interpreter, sign-language interpreter)

Mass Communication
.

• The mass (unknown to the sender or source)
  
  Senders do not necessarily know
  the audiences' motivations, biases, interpretations, etc.
  
• Also the oppotunity for the audience to provide feedback is limited and slow
  
• All mass communication is mediated; but not all mediated communication is mass.
  
  e.g., email and the telephone is a point-to-point mediauted medium, but, not mass-medium.
  

Communication Competence

Conclusions About Communication

Conclusions About Influences/Effects

Returning to Communication Competence

Chapter Summary

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